The health and economic burden associated with sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in Trinidad and Tobago.

BACKGROUND: In Trinidad and Tobago, non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are the leading cause of death. Unhealthy diet is one modifiable NCD risk factor, which contributes to the NCD burden. The consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) has been associated with an increased risk of NCDs. AIM: The aim of this paper is to estimate the burden of disease and economic costs associated with the consumption of SSBs in Trinidad and Tobago as evidence to support the implementation of health and fiscal policies on SSB consumption. METHODS: The results of this study were obtained through the use of a mathematical model which used a comparative risk assessment approach to estimate the health and economic burden associated with SSB intake, by sex and age. RESULTS: Estimates for one year showed that SSB consumption was associated with approximately 15,000 cases of overweight and obesity in adults and 11,700 cases in children, 28% of all the cases of diabetes and overall, an estimated 387 deaths and 9000 years of healthy life were lost due to premature death and disability. Approximately US$23.1 million was spent in the public healthcare system to treat diseases associated with consumption of sugary beverages. CONCLUSIONS: The consumption of SSBs is associated with increases in diseases, deaths and rising healthcare costs in Trinidad and Tobago. It is hoped that the results of this study will provide an added rationale and impetus for the implementation of policies to reduce the consumption of SSBs.

Sociodemographic and dietary influences on perceptions of eating habits in Jamaica.

Objective: To evaluate how sociodemographic factors and food intake affect survey respondents' perceptions of the quality of their diet. Methods: This cross-sectional analysis is based on a nonprobability sample of 374 participants in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. The three-stage process used a simple random sample to select three parishes; the main commercial areas of each parish were chosen for sampling. To ensure the inclusion of a cross-section that was as representative as possible, the sample included both public and private sector businesses, such as those in retail, hospitality and tourism as well as nongovernmental organizations. Employees and patrons completed a questionnaire regarding their food consumption and their perception of their own diet. Multiple correspondence analysis was used to evaluate the nonlinear relationships among the variables. The results of the analysis guided the specification of a multivariate logistic regression model that was used to estimate the relationship between sociodemographic factors, food intake and perceived eating patterns. Results: The average predicted probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was reduced when the respondent was male, economically active, in good health, and married or in a common-law relationship. The probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was increased for respondents with a college degree and those living in a household that had a male as the sole head. Consuming healthful food and drink reduced the perception of having a poor diet and vice versa, indicating there are possibly connections between food intake, the perception of diet quality and actual diet quality. Conclusions: This exploratory analysis established links between perceived diet quality, eating habits and sociodemographic factors. The impact on the perception of diet quality can be negative or positive, depending on the variable under consideration.

Assessing the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica.

Objective: To identify and assess the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica. Methods: Because of resource constraints, this cross-sectional assessment is based on a three-stage non-probability sample of 374 survey respondents in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. Firstly, three administrative areas (parishes) were randomly selected. Secondly, the main commercial areas within the selected parishes were identified, from which a non-probability sample of establishments was drawn. A broad selection of establishments covering public, private, and nongovernmental organizations was chosen. This array of establishments was selected to capture a sample of respondents that was as representative as possible. Patrons and employees in the selected establishments were asked to complete a questionnaire. Results: Respondents' self-assessment of their general consumption revealed that 48.4% were unhealthy eaters. Among these, the top reasons for generally unhealthy dietary choices were greater accessibility of unhealthy foods (63.5%) and limited time to prepare healthy meals (61.3%). Additionally, 52.5% indicated "unhealthy foods cost less," and 47.0% identified affordability as the main factor in the food choice equation. Findings revealed that the determinants of eating unhealthily tended to vary across income, age, and gender. Female, younger, and lower-income respondents have a higher likelihood of being impacted by the factors. Conclusions: The largest proportions of the sample identified limited time to prepare healthy meals and the ease of access to unhealthy foods as the foremost determinants of unhealthy eating habits. These barriers to healthy eating are more likely to impact survey participants in the 18-34 age group.

Assessing the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To identify and assess the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica. Methods. Because of resource constraints, this cross-sectional assessment is based on a three-stage non-probability sample of 374 survey respondents in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. Firstly, three administrative areas (parishes) were randomly selected. Secondly, the main commercial areas within the selected parishes were identified, from which a non-probability sample of establishments was drawn. A broad selection of establishments covering public, private, and nongovernmental organizations was chosen. This array of establishments was selected to capture a sample of respondents that was as representative as possible. Patrons and employees in the selected establishments were asked to complete a questionnaire. Results. Respondents’ self-assessment of their general consumption revealed that 48.4% were unhealthy eaters. Among these, the top reasons for generally unhealthy dietary choices were greater accessibility of unhealthy foods (63.5%) and limited time to prepare healthy meals (61.3%). Additionally, 52.5% indicated “unhealthy foods cost less,” and 47.0% identified affordability as the main factor in the food choice equation. Findings revealed that the determinants of eating unhealthily tended to vary across income, age, and gender. Female, younger, and lower-income respondents have a higher likelihood of being impacted by the factors. Conclusions. The largest proportions of the sample identified limited time to prepare healthy meals and the ease of access to unhealthy foods as the foremost determinants of unhealthy eating habits. These barriers to healthy eating are more likely to impact survey participants in the 18–34 age group.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Identificar y evaluar los determinantes de los hábitos alimentarios poco saludables en una muestra de encuestados en Jamaica. Métodos. Debido a las limitaciones de recursos, esta evaluación transversal se basa en una muestra no probabilística de tres etapas de 374 encuestados en Jamaica de edad igual o superior a los 18 años. Primero, se seleccionaron al azar tres parroquias (áreas administrativas). Luego, se identificaron las principales áreas comerciales dentro de las parroquias seleccionadas, y se extrajo una muestra no probabilística de establecimientos de esas áreas comerciales. Se escogió una amplia selección de establecimientos que abarcaban organizaciones públicas, privadas y no gubernamentales. Se seleccionó este rango de establecimientos para reunir una muestra de encuestados que fuera lo más representativa posible. Se pidió a los clientes y empleados de los establecimientos seleccionados que llenaran un cuestionario. Resultados. La autoevaluación de los encuestados sobre su consumo general reveló que 48,4 % tenían una alimentación poco saludable. Entre estos, las principales razones tras estas decisiones alimentarias generalmente poco saludables fueron un mayor acceso a alimentos poco saludables (63,5 %) y limitaciones en el tiempo para preparar comidas saludables (61,3 %). Además, 52,5 % indicó que “los alimentos poco saludables cuestan menos”, y 47,0 % identificó la asequibilidad como el factor principal en la ecuación relativa a la selección de alimentos. Los resultados revelaron que los determinantes de una alimentación poco saludable tendían a variar según los ingresos, la edad y el sexo. Entre los encuestados, las mujeres más jóvenes y con menores ingresos tenían una mayor probabilidad de verse afectadas por los factores. Conclusiones. La mayoría de los encuestados identificó las limitaciones con el tiempo necesario para preparar comidas saludables y la facilidad de acceso a alimentos poco saludables como los principales determinantes de hábitos alimentarios poco saludables. Es más probable que estas barreras para una alimentación saludable afecten a los encuestados del grupo etario de 18 a 34 años.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Identificar e analisar os determinantes de hábitos alimentares não saudáveis em uma amostra de participantes de pesquisa na Jamaica. Métodos. Por limitação de recursos, esta análise transversal foi realizada a partir de uma amostra não probabilística com 374 participantes maiores de 18 anos na Jamaica. A amostragem seguiu um processo de três estágios. Primeiro, três áreas administrativas (localidades) foram selecionadas de forma aleatória e, em seguida, foram identificadas as áreas comerciais centrais em cada localidade selecionada. Para garantir a representatividade da população, uma amostra não probabilística de estabelecimentos comerciais em setores variados (público e privado e organizações não governamentais) foi obtida, com a aplicação do questionário da pesquisa aos seus clientes e funcionários. Resultados. Os participantes avaliaram o próprio consumo alimentar em geral, o que demonstrou que 48,4% consumiam alimentos não saudáveis. Os principais fatores para escolhas alimentares pouco saudáveis foram maior acesso a alimentos não saudáveis (63,5%) e falta de tempo para o preparo de refeições saudáveis (61,3%), sendo que 52,5% indicaram que “os alimentos pouco saudáveis são mais baratos” e 47,0% citaram os preços acessíveis como o principal fator na escolha dos alimentos. Os determinantes da alimentação pouco saudável tenderam a variar de acordo com o gênero, idade e o nível de renda, afetando mais as mulheres, os jovens e pessoas de baixa renda. Conclusões. Uma grande parcela da amostra estudada apontou a falta de tempo para o preparo de refeições saudáveis e a facilidade de acesso a alimentos pouco saudáveis como determinantes de hábitos alimentares não saudáveis. Os obstáculos à alimentação saudável repercutem mais entre os participantes jovens de 18 a 34 anos de idade.

Sociodemographic and dietary influences on perceptions of eating habits in Jamaica

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To evaluate how sociodemographic factors and food intake affect survey respondents’ perceptions of the quality of their diet. Methods. This cross-sectional analysis is based on a nonprobability sample of 374 participants in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. The three-stage process used a simple random sample to select three parishes; the main commercial areas of each parish were chosen for sampling. To ensure the inclusion of a cross-section that was as representative as possible, the sample included both public and private sector businesses, such as those in retail, hospitality and tourism as well as nongovernmental organizations. Employees and patrons completed a questionnaire regarding their food consumption and their perception of their own diet. Multiple correspondence analysis was used to evaluate the nonlinear relationships among the variables. The results of the analysis guided the specification of a multivariate logistic regression model that was used to estimate the relationship between sociodemographic factors, food intake and perceived eating patterns. Results. The average predicted probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was reduced when the respondent was male, economically active, in good health, and married or in a common-law relationship. The probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was increased for respondents with a college degree and those living in a household that had a male as the sole head. Consuming healthful food and drink reduced the perception of having a poor diet and vice versa, indicating there are possibly connections between food intake, the perception of diet quality and actual diet quality. Conclusions. This exploratory analysis established links between perceived diet quality, eating habits and sociodemographic factors. The impact on the perception of diet quality can be negative or positive, depending on the variable under consideration.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Evaluar cómo los factores sociodemográficos y la ingesta de alimentos afectan las percepciones de las personas encuestadas sobre la calidad de su alimentación. Métodos. Este análisis transversal se basa en una muestra no probabilística de 374 participantes mayores de 18 años en Jamaica. En el proceso, de tres etapas, se utilizó una muestra aleatoria simple para seleccionar tres distritos; para el muestreo, se eligieron las principales áreas comerciales de cada distrito. Para garantizar la inclusión de una sección transversal lo más representativa posible, la muestra incluyó a empresas de los sectores público y privado, como las del comercio minorista, hotelería y turismo, así como a organizaciones no gubernamentales. Tanto empleados como clientes llenaron un cuestionario sobre su consumo de alimentos y su percepción sobre su alimentación. Para evaluar las relaciones no lineales entre las variables se utilizó el análisis de correspondencia múltiple. Los resultados del análisis se usaron como guía para las especificaciones de un modelo de regresión logística multivariante, utilizado para estimar la relación entre los factores sociodemográficos, la ingesta de alimentos y los patrones de alimentación percibidos. Resultados. La probabilidad promedio predicha de percibir que un régimen alimentario es poco saludable era menor cuando el encuestado era de sexo masculino y económicamente activo, tenía buena salud y estaba casado o en una unión de hecho. La probabilidad de percibir un régimen alimentario como poco saludable era mayor en el caso de los encuestados con título universitario y de los que vivían en un hogar con un hombre como único cabeza de familia. El consumo de alimentos y bebidas saludables redujo la percepción de tener una mala alimentación y viceversa, lo que indica la posible existencia de una relación entre la ingesta de alimentos, la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario y la calidad real del régimen alimentario. Conclusiones. En este análisis exploratorio se estableció una relación entre la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario, los hábitos alimentarios y los factores sociodemográficos. El impacto sobre la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario puede ser negativo o positivo, según la variable considerada.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Avaliar como fatores sociodemográficos e a ingestão de alimentos influenciam a percepção dos participantes da pesquisa sobre a qualidade de sua alimentação. Métodos. Trata-se de uma análise transversal realizada em uma amostra não probabilística com 374 participantes maiores de 18 anos na Jamaica. Três localidades no país foram selecionadas por meio de um processo de amostragem aleatória simples em três etapas, com amostragem da população nas áreas comerciais centrais de cada localidade. Para garantir uma boa amostra transversal representativa da população, foram incluídos estabelecimentos comerciais dos setores público e privado, como varejistas, hotelaria e turismo e organizações não governamentais. Clientes e empregados responderam um questionário sobre seu consumo de alimentos e percepção sobre a própria alimentação. Uma análise de correspondência múltipla foi realizada para avaliar as relações não lineares entre as variáveis e, a partir dos resultados desta análise, foi construído um modelo de regressão logística multivariada para estimar a relação entre fatores sociodemográficos, consumo de alimentos e padrões alimentares percebidos. Resultados. A probabilidade prevista média de perceber a alimentação como pouco saudável foi menor entre os participantes do sexo masculino, economicamente ativos, com boa saúde e casados ou em união estável. A probabilidade de perceber a alimentação como pouco saudável foi maior entre os participantes com nível superior de escolaridade e que residiam em um ambiente familiar com uma pessoa do sexo masculino como chefe de família. Consumir alimentos e bebidas saudáveis foi associado a uma percepção menor de má alimentação, e vice-versa, o que indica um possível vínculo entre o consumo de alimentos, a percepção da qualidade da alimentação e a qualidade efetiva da alimentação. Conclusões. Esta análise exploratória demonstrou existir um vínculo entre qualidade percebida da alimentação, hábitos alimentares e fatores sociodemográficos. A influência na percepção da qualidade da alimentação é negativa ou positiva dependendo da variável considerada.

Assessing the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica / Evaluación de los determinantes de los hábitos alimentarios poco saludables en una muestra de encuestados en Jamaica / Uma análise dos determinantes de hábitos alimentares não saudáveis em uma amostra de participantes de pesquisa na Jamaica

ABSTRACT Objective. To identify and assess the determinants of unhealthy dietary habits among a sample of survey participants in Jamaica. Methods. Because of resource constraints, this cross-sectional assessment is based on a three-stage non-probability sample of 374 survey respondents in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. Firstly, three administrative areas (parishes) were randomly selected. Secondly, the main commercial areas within the selected parishes were identified, from which a non-probability sample of establishments was drawn. A broad selection of establishments covering public, private, and nongovernmental organizations was chosen. This array of establishments was selected to capture a sample of respondents that was as representative as possible. Patrons and employees in the selected establishments were asked to complete a questionnaire. Results. Respondents' self-assessment of their general consumption revealed that 48.4% were unhealthy eaters. Among these, the top reasons for generally unhealthy dietary choices were greater accessibility of unhealthy foods (63.5%) and limited time to prepare healthy meals (61.3%). Additionally, 52.5% indicated "unhealthy foods cost less," and 47.0% identified affordability as the main factor in the food choice equation. Findings revealed that the determinants of eating unhealthily tended to vary across income, age, and gender. Female, younger, and lower-income respondents have a higher likelihood of being impacted by the factors. Conclusions. The largest proportions of the sample identified limited time to prepare healthy meals and the ease of access to unhealthy foods as the foremost determinants of unhealthy eating habits. These barriers to healthy eating are more likely to impact survey participants in the 18-34 age group.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Identificar y evaluar los determinantes de los hábitos alimentarios poco saludables en una muestra de encuestados en Jamaica. Métodos. Debido a las limitaciones de recursos, esta evaluación transversal se basa en una muestra no probabilística de tres etapas de 374 encuestados en Jamaica de edad igual o superior a los 18 años. Primero, se seleccionaron al azar tres parroquias (áreas administrativas). Luego, se identificaron las principales áreas comerciales dentro de las parroquias seleccionadas, y se extrajo una muestra no probabilística de establecimientos de esas áreas comerciales. Se escogió una amplia selección de establecimientos que abarcaban organizaciones públicas, privadas y no gubernamentales. Se seleccionó este rango de establecimientos para reunir una muestra de encuestados que fuera lo más representativa posible. Se pidió a los clientes y empleados de los establecimientos seleccionados que llenaran un cuestionario. Resultados. La autoevaluación de los encuestados sobre su consumo general reveló que 48,4 % tenían una alimentación poco saludable. Entre estos, las principales razones tras estas decisiones alimentarias generalmente poco saludables fueron un mayor acceso a alimentos poco saludables (63,5 %) y limitaciones en el tiempo para preparar comidas saludables (61,3 %). Además, 52,5 % indicó que "los alimentos poco saludables cuestan menos", y 47,0 % identificó la asequibilidad como el factor principal en la ecuación relativa a la selección de alimentos. Los resultados revelaron que los determinantes de una alimentación poco saludable tendían a variar según los ingresos, la edad y el sexo. Entre los encuestados, las mujeres más jóvenes y con menores ingresos tenían una mayor probabilidad de verse afectadas por los factores. Conclusiones. La mayoría de los encuestados identificó las limitaciones con el tiempo necesario para preparar comidas saludables y la facilidad de acceso a alimentos poco saludables como los principales determinantes de hábitos alimentarios poco saludables. Es más probable que estas barreras para una alimentación saludable afecten a los encuestados del grupo etario de 18 a 34 años.

RESUMO Objetivo. Identificar e analisar os determinantes de hábitos alimentares não saudáveis em uma amostra de participantes de pesquisa na Jamaica. Métodos. Por limitação de recursos, esta análise transversal foi realizada a partir de uma amostra não probabilística com 374 participantes maiores de 18 anos na Jamaica. A amostragem seguiu um processo de três estágios. Primeiro, três áreas administrativas (localidades) foram selecionadas de forma aleatória e, em seguida, foram identificadas as áreas comerciais centrais em cada localidade selecionada. Para garantir a representatividade da população, uma amostra não probabilística de estabelecimentos comerciais em setores variados (público e privado e organizações não governamentais) foi obtida, com a aplicação do questionário da pesquisa aos seus clientes e funcionários. Resultados. Os participantes avaliaram o próprio consumo alimentar em geral, o que demonstrou que 48,4% consumiam alimentos não saudáveis. Os principais fatores para escolhas alimentares pouco saudáveis foram maior acesso a alimentos não saudáveis (63,5%) e falta de tempo para o preparo de refeições saudáveis (61,3%), sendo que 52,5% indicaram que "os alimentos pouco saudáveis são mais baratos" e 47,0% citaram os preços acessíveis como o principal fator na escolha dos alimentos. Os determinantes da alimentação pouco saudável tenderam a variar de acordo com o gênero, idade e o nível de renda, afetando mais as mulheres, os jovens e pessoas de baixa renda. Conclusões. Uma grande parcela da amostra estudada apontou a falta de tempo para o preparo de refeições saudáveis e a facilidade de acesso a alimentos pouco saudáveis como determinantes de hábitos alimentares não saudáveis. Os obstáculos à alimentação saudável repercutem mais entre os participantes jovens de 18 a 34 anos de idade.

Sociodemographic and dietary influences on perceptions of eating habits in Jamaica / Influencias sociodemográficas y alimentarias en las percepciones de los hábitos de alimentación en Jamaica / Influências sociodemográficas e dietéticas na percepção dos hábitos alimentares na Jamaica

ABSTRACT Objective. To evaluate how sociodemographic factors and food intake affect survey respondents' perceptions of the quality of their diet. Methods. This cross-sectional analysis is based on a nonprobability sample of 374 participants in Jamaica aged ≥18 years. The three-stage process used a simple random sample to select three parishes; the main commercial areas of each parish were chosen for sampling. To ensure the inclusion of a cross-section that was as representative as possible, the sample included both public and private sector businesses, such as those in retail, hospitality and tourism as well as nongovernmental organizations. Employees and patrons completed a questionnaire regarding their food consumption and their perception of their own diet. Multiple correspondence analysis was used to evaluate the nonlinear relationships among the variables. The results of the analysis guided the specification of a multivariate logistic regression model that was used to estimate the relationship between sociodemographic factors, food intake and perceived eating patterns. Results. The average predicted probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was reduced when the respondent was male, economically active, in good health, and married or in a common-law relationship. The probability of perceiving a diet as unhealthy was increased for respondents with a college degree and those living in a household that had a male as the sole head. Consuming healthful food and drink reduced the perception of having a poor diet and vice versa, indicating there are possibly connections between food intake, the perception of diet quality and actual diet quality. Conclusions. This exploratory analysis established links between perceived diet quality, eating habits and sociodemographic factors. The impact on the perception of diet quality can be negative or positive, depending on the variable under consideration.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Evaluar cómo los factores sociodemográficos y la ingesta de alimentos afectan las percepciones de las personas encuestadas sobre la calidad de su alimentación. Métodos. Este análisis transversal se basa en una muestra no probabilística de 374 participantes mayores de 18 años en Jamaica. En el proceso, de tres etapas, se utilizó una muestra aleatoria simple para seleccionar tres distritos; para el muestreo, se eligieron las principales áreas comerciales de cada distrito. Para garantizar la inclusión de una sección transversal lo más representativa posible, la muestra incluyó a empresas de los sectores público y privado, como las del comercio minorista, hotelería y turismo, así como a organizaciones no gubernamentales. Tanto empleados como clientes llenaron un cuestionario sobre su consumo de alimentos y su percepción sobre su alimentación. Para evaluar las relaciones no lineales entre las variables se utilizó el análisis de correspondencia múltiple. Los resultados del análisis se usaron como guía para las especificaciones de un modelo de regresión logística multivariante, utilizado para estimar la relación entre los factores sociodemográficos, la ingesta de alimentos y los patrones de alimentación percibidos. Resultados. La probabilidad promedio predicha de percibir que un régimen alimentario es poco saludable era menor cuando el encuestado era de sexo masculino y económicamente activo, tenía buena salud y estaba casado o en una unión de hecho. La probabilidad de percibir un régimen alimentario como poco saludable era mayor en el caso de los encuestados con título universitario y de los que vivían en un hogar con un hombre como único cabeza de familia. El consumo de alimentos y bebidas saludables redujo la percepción de tener una mala alimentación y viceversa, lo que indica la posible existencia de una relación entre la ingesta de alimentos, la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario y la calidad real del régimen alimentario. Conclusiones. En este análisis exploratorio se estableció una relación entre la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario, los hábitos alimentarios y los factores sociodemográficos. El impacto sobre la percepción de la calidad del régimen alimentario puede ser negativo o positivo, según la variable considerada.

RESUMO Objetivo. Avaliar como fatores sociodemográficos e a ingestão de alimentos influenciam a percepção dos participantes da pesquisa sobre a qualidade de sua alimentação. Métodos. Trata-se de uma análise transversal realizada em uma amostra não probabilística com 374 participantes maiores de 18 anos na Jamaica. Três localidades no país foram selecionadas por meio de um processo de amostragem aleatória simples em três etapas, com amostragem da população nas áreas comerciais centrais de cada localidade. Para garantir uma boa amostra transversal representativa da população, foram incluídos estabelecimentos comerciais dos setores público e privado, como varejistas, hotelaria e turismo e organizações não governamentais. Clientes e empregados responderam um questionário sobre seu consumo de alimentos e percepção sobre a própria alimentação. Uma análise de correspondência múltipla foi realizada para avaliar as relações não lineares entre as variáveis e, a partir dos resultados desta análise, foi construído um modelo de regressão logística multivariada para estimar a relação entre fatores sociodemográficos, consumo de alimentos e padrões alimentares percebidos. Resultados. A probabilidade prevista média de perceber a alimentação como pouco saudável foi menor entre os participantes do sexo masculino, economicamente ativos, com boa saúde e casados ou em união estável. A probabilidade de perceber a alimentação como pouco saudável foi maior entre os participantes com nível superior de escolaridade e que residiam em um ambiente familiar com uma pessoa do sexo masculino como chefe de família. Consumir alimentos e bebidas saudáveis foi associado a uma percepção menor de má alimentação, e vice-versa, o que indica um possível vínculo entre o consumo de alimentos, a percepção da qualidade da alimentação e a qualidade efetiva da alimentação. Conclusões. Esta análise exploratória demonstrou existir um vínculo entre qualidade percebida da alimentação, hábitos alimentares e fatores sociodemográficos. A influência na percepção da qualidade da alimentação é negativa ou positiva dependendo da variável considerada.

The socio-economic determinants of multimorbidity among the elderly population in Trinidad and Tobago.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of multimorbidity and investigate the socioeconomic factors that are associated with multimorbidity among persons 70 years and older in Trinidad and Tobago. DESIGN AND METHODS: The data were obtained from a nationally representative comprehensive cross-sectional survey conducted in 2014 among elderly persons in the targeted age group. The prevalence of multimorbidity among the elderly population was estimated. A logit model was utilized to determine the socioeconomic characteristics that are associated with multimorbidity in the elderly. RESULTS: The results of the study show that multimorbidity in the elderly population is strongly associated with age, ethnicity, lower education, smoking history, no physical activity and being female. An interesting finding is that elderly persons in the richest quintile are in general, more prone to multimorbidity. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that interventions to reduce multimorbidity among the elderly population must encourage greater levels of physical activity, provide education on the risk factors of multimorbidity, and discourage smoking.

Austerity, and funding cuts: Implications for sustainability of the response to the Caribbean HIV/AIDS epidemic.

The Caribbean, accessed significant external funding over the first three decades of the epidemic, which provided local authorities the opportunity to defer their responsibility in leading or matching the support provided from the external agencies. The reduction in external support has placed increased pressure on the response to the epidemic, with some countries more likely to be affected than others. This paper undertakes a review of the expenditure and funding landscape for HIV programs in the Caribbean. The findings confirm that despite the dwindling number of funding sources, some countries continue to display a significant degree of dependency on external funding sources. It is noteworthy that Treatment and Care accounted for the largest share of HIV expenditure in those countries, which displayed the highest degree of dependency on external funding. While, HIV spending was a relatively small percentage of both total health expenditure and gross domestic product, expenditure levels were noticeably higher in Haiti. These averages however conceal significant differences across countries, which should inform the magnitude and direction of any spending expansion by these countries if they are to achieve financial sustainability. Some recommendations are provided on the way forward to facilitate building a sustainable response to the epidemic.

Increased taxation on cigarettes in Grenada: potential effects on consumption and revenue

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To investigate the feasibility of addressing the public health concerns of tobacco consumption through increased taxation, while preserving or augmenting government revenues in Grenada. Methods. Purposive sampling methods were used to ensure data availability and geographical representativeness. Average price per 20-pack of the most-sold brands of cigarettes was calculated using data from three major supermarkets. The World Health Organization’s Tax Simulation Model was used, with excise tax rates adjusted to effect 5%, 10%, and 15% consumption decreases. Results. A 17% to 117% excise tax increase on the cost, insurance, and freight (CIF) value would achieve a 5% consumption decrease. Total government revenues would grow 8.7% and excise tax revenues would increase 11%. The average excise tax per 20-pack would move from EC$ 3.24 (2014 US$ 1.20) to EC$ 3.80 (US$ 1.41), while the average price per pack would increase to EC$ 9.21 (US$ 3.41) from EC$8.48 (US$ 3.14). In the 10% and 15% consumption reduction scenarios, excise taxes would have to be increased by 33% and 50% (to 133% and 150% of CIF, respectively), pushing the average excise tax per pack to EC$ 4.37 (US$ 1.62) and EC$ 4.90 (US$ 1.81), respectively. Conclusion. In Grenada, consumption can be reduced alongside growth in government revenues, making available additional resources for health. This aligns with the literature, which indicates that taxation can be effective in pursuing the public health objective of reduced incidence of smoking-related illnesses via reduced consumption.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Investigar la viabilidad de abordar los problemas de salud pública relacionados con el consumo de tabaco mediante un aumento de los impuestos, al tiempo que se conservan o aumentan los ingresos públicos del gobierno en Granada. Métodos. Se utilizaron métodos de muestreo intencional para garantizar la disponibilidad de datos y su representatividad geográfica. Se calculó el precio promedio del paquete de 20 cigarrillos de las marcas más vendidas a partir de los datos obtenidos en tres grandes supermercados. Se utilizó el Modelo de Simulación de Impuestos de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, con tasas de impuestos al consumo ajustadas para obtener reducciones del 5%, 10% y 15% en el consumo. Resultados. Un aumento del 17% al 117% en el impuesto al consumo sobre el valor del costo, seguro y flete (CSF) ocasionaría una disminución del 5% en el consumo. Los ingresos totales del gobierno crecerían un 8,7% y los ingresos por impuesto al consumo aumentarían un 11%. El impuesto al consumo promedio por paquete de 20 cigarrillos aumentaría de EC$ (dólar del Caribe oriental) 3,24 (USD 1,20 de 2014) a EC$ 3,80 (USD 1,41), y el precio promedio por paquete aumentaría de EC$ 8,48 (USD 3,14) a EC$ 9,21 (USD 3,41). En los escenarios de reducción del consumo del 10% y el 15%, los impuestos al consumo deberían aumentarse en un 33% y 50% (al 133% y 150% del CSF, respectivamente), lo que elevaría el promedio del impuesto al consumo por paquete a EC$ 4,37 (USD 1,62) y EC$ 4,90 (USD 1,81), respectivamente. Conclusión. En Granada, el consumo de tabaco puede reducirse y aumentarse a la vez los ingresos públicos, generando recursos adicionales disponibles para la salud. Esto coincide con la bibliografía publicada, que indica que los impuestos pueden ser eficaces para alcanzar el objetivo de salud pública de reducir la incidencia de enfermedades relacionadas con el hábito de fumar a través de una reducción del consumo.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Investigar a viabilidade de abordar problemas de saúde pública relacionados ao consumo de tabaco através de um aumento de impostos, enquanto conserva ou aumenta a receita do governo em Granada. Métodos. Métodos intencionais de amostragem foram utilizados para garantir a disponibilidade de dados e sua representatividade geográfica. O preço médio da embalagem de 20 cigarros das marcas mais vendidas foi calculado a partir dos dados obtidos em três grandes supermercados. Utilizou-se o Modelo de Simulação Tributária da Organização Mundial de Saúde, com taxas de imposto de consumo ajustadas para obter reduções de 5%, 10% e 15% no consumo. Resultados. Um aumento de 17% para 117% na taxa de consumo sobre o valor do custo, seguro e frete (CSF) causaria uma queda de 5% no consumo. As receitas totais do governo aumentariam em 8,7% e as receitas dos impostos sobre o consumo aumentariam em 11%. O imposto médio de consumo por pacote de 20 cigarros aumentaria de EC$ (dólar do Caribe Oriental) 3,24 (USD 1,20 de 2014) para EC$ 3,80 (USD 1,41), e o preço médio por pacote aumentaria de EC$ 8,48 (USD 3,14) para EC$ 9,21 (USD 3,41). Nos cenários de redução do consumo de 10% e 15%, os impostos sobre consumo devem ser aumentados em 33% e 50% (para 133% e 150% do CSF, respectivamente), o que elevaria a média do imposto sobre o consumo por pacote a EC$ 4,37 (USD 1,62) e EC$ 4,90 (USD 1,81), respectivamente. Conclusão. Em Granada, o consumo de tabaco pode ser reduzido e as receitas do governo aumentadas, gerando recursos adicionais disponíveis para a saúde. Isso coincide com a literatura publicada, que indica que os impostos podem ser efetivos para alcançar o objetivo de saúde pública de reduzir a incidência de doenças relacionadas ao tabagismo através da redução do consumo.

The potential for using alcohol and tobacco taxes to fund prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases in Caribbean Community countries

[ABSTRACT]. Objectives. To determine the extent to which increased taxes on alcohol and tobacco products in Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries might successfully reduce consumption of those products and raise revenues, which could then be channeled into noncommunicable disease (NCD) prevention and control initiatives. Methods. The Tobacco Tax Simulation (TaXSiM) model, which was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), was used to simulate the impact of tax changes on alcohol and tobacco products in three CARICOM member countries. Estimates of the NCD response cost in the 15 countries that are full members of CARICOM were also produced. Results. For the 15 full-member CARICOM countries, the revenues from increased excise taxes on beer, rum, and cigarettes associated with a 5.0% reduction in consumption were estimated at US$ 86.32 million. This expected revenue intake from excise taxes exceeded the estimated US$ 52.73 million required to respond to NCDs in those 15 CARICOM countries. The amount also exceeds US$ 78.87 million, which will be required if there is a 50.0% increase in the per capita NCD response cost. Conclusions. The findings showed that for CARICOM countries, there is a substantial potential for revenue generation from increases in taxes on alcohol and tobacco, as well as for decreases in consumption of the products. Although increased taxes on alcohol and cigarettes can sufficiently cover the cost of controlling NCDs among CARICOM countries, a comprehensive response also requires widespread participation from various sectors.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Determinar hasta qué punto el aumento de los impuestos al alcohol y el tabaco en los países de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM) podría reducir el consumo de esos productos y aumentar los ingresos públicos, recursos que posteriormente podrían derivarse hacia iniciativas de prevención y control de enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT). Métodos. Se empleó el modelo de Simulación de Impuestos al Tabaco (TaXSiM), desarrollado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud, para simular el impacto de los cambios impositivos sobre el alcohol y el tabaco en tres países miembros de la CARICOM, así como para estimar el costo de respuesta a las ENT en los 15 países que son miembros plenos de la CARICOM. Resultados. Para los 15 países miembros plenos de la CARICOM, los ingresos públicos derivados del aumento de los impuestos al consumo de cerveza, ron y cigarrillos asociados con una reducción del consumo del 5.0% se estimaron en USD 86,32 millones. Este ingreso esperado por impuestos al consumo excedió los USD 52,58 millones requeridos para responder a las ENT en esos 15 países de la CARICOM. Ese monto también supera los USD 78,87 millones que se requerirán si hay un aumento del 50.0% en el costo de respuesta per cápita a las ENT. Conclusiones. Los hallazgos demostraron que, para los países de la CARICOM, existe un potencial importante para generar ingresos a partir del aumento de los impuestos al alcohol y el tabaco, así como para la disminución del consumo de estos productos. Aunque el aumento de los impuestos al alcohol y los cigarrillos puede cubrir suficientemente el costo de controlar las ENT en los países de la CARICOM, una respuesta integral requiere también la participación amplia de varios sectores.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Determinar em que medida o aumento dos impostos sobre o álcool e tabaco nos países da Comunidade do Caribe (CARICOM) poderia reduzir o consumo desses produtos e aumentar as receitas do governo, recursos que poderiam posteriormente ser desviados para iniciativas de prevenção e controle de doenças não transmissíveis (DNT). Métodos. O modelo de Simulação Tributária do Tabaco (TaXSiM), desenvolvido pela Organização Mundial de Saúde, foi usado para simular o impacto das alterações fiscais sobre o álcool e tabaco em três países membros da CARICOM, bem para estimar o custo de resposta às DNT nos 15 países membros da CARICOM. Resultados. Para os 15 países membros plenos da CARICOM, as receitas públicas do aumento de impostos sobre o consumo de cerveja, rum e cigarros, associadas a uma redução de 5,0% no consumo, foram estimadas em USD 86,32 milhões. Essa receita esperada de impostos sobre o consumo excedeu os USD 52,58 milhões necessários para responder às DNT nesses 15 países da CARICOM. Esse valor também excede os USD 78,87 milhões que serão necessários se houver um aumento de 50,0% no custo de resposta per capita às DNT. Conclusões. Os resultados mostraram que para os países da CARICOM existe um potencial significativo para gerar receita a partir de aumentos nos impostos sobre álcool e tabaco, bem como para a diminuição no consumo desses produtos. Embora o aumento dos impostos sobre o álcool e cigarros possa cobrir suficientemente o custo de controle das DNT nos países da CARICOM, uma resposta abrangente requer também a participação ampla de diversos setores.

The potential for using alcohol and tobacco taxes to fund prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases in Caribbean Community countries.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the extent to which increased taxes on alcohol and tobacco products in Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries might successfully reduce consumption of those products and raise revenues, which could then be channeled into noncommunicable disease (NCD) prevention and control initiatives. METHODS: The Tobacco Tax Simulation (TaXSiM) model, which was developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), was used to simulate the impact of tax changes on alcohol and tobacco products in three CARICOM member countries. Estimates of the NCD response cost in the 15 countries that are full members of CARICOM were also produced. RESULTS: For the 15 full-member CARICOM countries, the revenues from increased excise taxes on beer, rum, and cigarettes associated with a 5.0% reduction in consumption were estimated at US$ 86.32 million. This expected revenue intake from excise taxes exceeded the estimated US$ 52.73 million required to respond to NCDs in those 15 CARICOM countries. The amount also exceeds US$ 78.87 million, which will be required if there is a 50.0% increase in the per capita NCD response cost. CONCLUSIONS: The findings showed that for CARICOM countries, there is a substantial potential for revenue generation from increases in taxes on alcohol and tobacco, as well as for decreases in consumption of the products. Although increased taxes on alcohol and cigarettes can sufficiently cover the cost of controlling NCDs among CARICOM countries, a comprehensive response also requires widespread participation from various sectors.

Increased taxation on cigarettes in Grenada: potential effects on consumption and revenue.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the feasibility of addressing the public health concerns of tobacco consumption through increased taxation, while preserving or augmenting government revenues in Grenada. METHODS: Purposive sampling methods were used to ensure data availability and geographical representativeness. Average price per 20-pack of the most-sold brands of cigarettes was calculated using data from three major supermarkets. The World Health Organization's Tax Simulation Model was used, with excise tax rates adjusted to effect 5%, 10%, and 15% consumption decreases. RESULTS: A 17% to 117% excise tax increase on the cost, insurance, and freight (CIF) value would achieve a 5% consumption decrease. Total government revenues would grow 8.7% and excise tax revenues would increase 11%. The average excise tax per 20-pack would move from EC$ 3.24 (2014 US$ 1.20) to EC$ 3.80 (US$ 1.41), while the average price per pack would increase to EC$ 9.21 (US$ 3.41) from EC$8.48 (US$ 3.14). In the 10% and 15% consumption reduction scenarios, excise taxes would have to be increased by 33% and 50% (to 133% and 150% of CIF, respectively), pushing the average excise tax per pack to EC$ 4.37 (US$ 1.62) and EC$ 4.90 (US$ 1.81), respectively. CONCLUSION: In Grenada, consumption can be reduced alongside growth in government revenues, making available additional resources for health. This aligns with the literature, which indicates that taxation can be effective in pursuing the public health objective of reduced incidence of smoking-related illnesses via reduced consumption.

Increased taxation on cigarettes in Grenada: potential effects on consumption and revenue / Aumento de los impuestos a los cigarrillos en Granada: efectos potenciales sobre el consumo y los ingresos públicos / Aumento Dos Impostos Sobre Os Cigarros Em Granada: Efeitos Potenciais Sobre O Consumo E As Receitas Públicas

ABSTRACT Objective To investigate the feasibility of addressing the public health concerns of tobacco consumption through increased taxation, while preserving or augmenting government revenues in Grenada. Methods Purposive sampling methods were used to ensure data availability and geographical representativeness. Average price per 20-pack of the most-sold brands of cigarettes was calculated using data from three major supermarkets. The World Health Organization's Tax Simulation Model was used, with excise tax rates adjusted to effect 5%, 10%, and 15% consumption decreases. Results A 17% to 117% excise tax increase on the cost, insurance, and freight (CIF) value would achieve a 5% consumption decrease. Total government revenues would grow 8.7% and excise tax revenues would increase 11%. The average excise tax per 20-pack would move from EC$ 3.24 (2014 US$ 1.20) to EC$ 3.80 (US$ 1.41), while the average price per pack would increase to EC$ 9.21 (US$ 3.41) from EC$8.48 (US$ 3.14). In the 10% and 15% consumption reduction scenarios, excise taxes would have to be increased by 33% and 50% (to 133% and 150% of CIF, respectively), pushing the average excise tax per pack to EC$ 4.37 (US$ 1.62) and EC$ 4.90 (US$ 1.81), respectively. Conclusion In Grenada, consumption can be reduced alongside growth in government revenues, making available additional resources for health. This aligns with the literature, which indicates that taxation can be effective in pursuing the public health objective of reduced incidence of smoking-related illnesses via reduced consumption.

RESUMEN Objetivo Investigar la viabilidad de abordar los problemas de salud pública relacionados con el consumo de tabaco mediante un aumento de los impuestos, al tiempo que se conservan o aumentan los ingresos públicos del gobierno en Granada. Métodos Se utilizaron métodos de muestreo intencional para garantizar la disponibilidad de datos y su representatividad geográfica. Se calculó el precio promedio del paquete de 20 cigarrillos de las marcas más vendidas a partir de los datos obtenidos en tres grandes supermercados. Se utilizó el Modelo de Simulación de Impuestos de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, con tasas de impuestos al consumo ajustadas para obtener reducciones del 5%, 10% y 15% en el consumo. Resultados Un aumento del 17% al 117% en el impuesto al consumo sobre el valor del costo, seguro y flete (CSF) ocasionaría una disminución del 5% en el consumo. Los ingresos totales del gobierno crecerían un 8,7% y los ingresos por impuesto al consumo aumentarían un 11%. El impuesto al consumo promedio por paquete de 20 cigarrillos aumentaría de EC$ (dólar del Caribe oriental) 3,24 (USD 1,20 de 2014) a EC$ 3,80 (USD 1,41), y el precio promedio por paquete aumentaría de EC$ 8,48 (USD 3,14) a EC$ 9,21 (USD 3,41). En los escenarios de reducción del consumo del 10% y el 15%, los impuestos al consumo deberían aumentarse en un 33% y 50% (al 133% y 150% del CSF, respectivamente), lo que elevaría el promedio del impuesto al consumo por paquete a EC$ 4,37 (USD 1,62) y EC$ 4,90 (USD 1,81), respectivamente. Conclusión En Granada, el consumo de tabaco puede reducirse y aumentarse a la vez los ingresos públicos, generando recursos adicionales disponibles para la salud. Esto coincide con la bibliografía publicada, que indica que los impuestos pueden ser eficaces para alcanzar el objetivo de salud pública de reducir la incidencia de enfermedades relacionadas con el hábito de fumar a través de una reducción del consumo.

RESUMO Objetivo Investigar a viabilidade de abordar problemas de saúde pública relacionados ao consumo de tabaco através de um aumento de impostos, enquanto conserva ou aumenta a receita do governo em Granada. Métodos Métodos intencionais de amostragem foram utilizados para garantir a disponibilidade de dados e sua representatividade geográfica. O preço médio da embalagem de 20 cigarros das marcas mais vendidas foi calculado a partir dos dados obtidos em três grandes supermercados. Utilizou-se o Modelo de Simulação Tributária da Organização Mundial de Saúde, com taxas de imposto de consumo ajustadas para obter reduções de 5%, 10% e 15% no consumo. Resultados Um aumento de 17% para 117% na taxa de consumo sobre o valor do custo, seguro e frete (CSF) causaria uma queda de 5% no consumo. As receitas totais do governo aumentariam em 8,7% e as receitas dos impostos sobre o consumo aumentariam em 11%. O imposto médio de consumo por pacote de 20 cigarros aumentaria de EC$ (dólar do Caribe Oriental) 3,24 (USD 1,20 de 2014) para EC$ 3,80 (USD 1,41), e o preço médio por pacote aumentaria de EC$ 8,48 (USD 3,14) para EC$ 9,21 (USD 3,41). Nos cenários de redução do consumo de 10% e 15%, os impostos sobre consumo devem ser aumentados em 33% e 50% (para 133% e 150% do CSF, respectivamente), o que elevaria a média do imposto sobre o consumo por pacote a EC$ 4,37 (USD 1,62) e EC$ 4,90 (USD 1,81), respectivamente. Conclusão Em Granada, o consumo de tabaco pode ser reduzido e as receitas do governo aumentadas, gerando recursos adicionais disponíveis para a saúde. Isso coincide com a literatura publicada, que indica que os impostos podem ser efetivos para alcançar o objetivo de saúde pública de reduzir a incidência de doenças relacionadas ao tabagismo através da redução do consumo.

Measuring and explaining health and health care inequalities in Jamaica, 2004 and 2007.

OBJECTIVE: This study addresses the need to measure and explain the inequalities and inequities of Jamaica's health system to generate evidence to support policy development, monitoring, and evaluation. METHODS: The nationally representative Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions data sets for 2004 and 2007 were used to produce concentration curves and concentration indices for three health outcome variables (probability of any illness or injury, duration of latest episode of -illness, and self-assessed health status) and two health care utilization variables (probability of a curative visit to a health practitioner and number of curative visits) to measure income-related inequalities. Their standardized counterparts were used to measure inequities. Decomposition of the concentration index provides a basis for explaining the contributions of socioeconomic and demographic factors to overall inequalities. RESULTS: Probability of illness and duration of illness were concentrated among the poor, while there was a distinct pro-rich inequality with respect to utilization of heath care services. These inequalities and inequities became more pronounced over the period 2004 - 2007. The level of household welfare was found to be the single most significant factor contributing to these inequalities. Other significant contributing factors were unemployment and rural location for health outcomes and insurance coverage for utilization of services. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of measures taken ostensibly to address health equity in Jamaica, income-related inequalities in health outcomes and health care have increased and the population group that needs health services most is using them least. These findings suggest a need for more innovative programs geared toward improving equity in health in Jamaica.

Measuring and explaining health and health care inequalities in Jamaica, 2004 and 2007 / Medición e interpretación de las desigualdades en la salud y la atención sanitaria en Jamaica, 2004 y 2007

OBJECTIVE: This study addresses the need to measure and explain the inequalities and inequities of Jamaica's health system to generate evidence to support policy development, monitoring, and evaluation. METHODS: The nationally representative Jamaica Survey of Living Conditions data sets for 2004 and 2007 were used to produce concentration curves and concentration indices for three health outcome variables (probability of any illness or injury, duration of latest episode of -illness, and self-assessed health status) and two health care utilization variables (probability of a curative visit to a health practitioner and number of curative visits) to measure income-related inequalities. Their standardized counterparts were used to measure inequities. Decomposition of the concentration index provides a basis for explaining the contributions of socioeconomic and demographic factors to overall inequalities. RESULTS: Probability of illness and duration of illness were concentrated among the poor, while there was a distinct pro-rich inequality with respect to utilization of heath care services. These inequalities and inequities became more pronounced over the period 2004 - 2007. The level of household welfare was found to be the single most significant factor contributing to these inequalities. Other significant contributing factors were unemployment and rural location for health outcomes and insurance coverage for utilization of services. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of measures taken ostensibly to address health equity in Jamaica, income-related inequalities in health outcomes and health care have increased and the population group that needs health services most is using them least. These findings suggest a need for more innovative programs geared toward improving equity in health in Jamaica.

OBJETIVO. Medir y explicar las desigualdades y las inequidades del sistema de -salud de Jamaica a fin de obtener evidencia que apoye el desarrollo, el seguimiento y la evaluación de las políticas de salud. MÉTODOS. Se usaron los datos de la Encuesta sobre Condición de Vida en Jamaica de 2004 y 2007, representativas del país. Se midieron las desigualdades relacionadas con los ingresos mediante curvas e índices de concentración de tres variables de resultados en salud (probabilidad de enfermedad o lesión, duración de la última enfermedad y autoevaluación del estado de salud) y dos variables de utilización de servicios (probabilidad de recibir atención sanitaria y número de consultas sanitarias). Se utilizaron sus contrapartes estandarizadas para medir las inequidades. Con la descomposición del índice de concentración se explica la contribución de los factores socioeconómicos y demográficos a las desigualdades. RESULTADOS. La probabilidad de enfermar y la duración de la enfermedad se concentraron en la población de menores ingresos, con una clara desigualdad a favor de las personas de mayores ingresos en la utilización de los servicios de salud. Estas desigualdades e inequidades crecieron en el período 2004 - 2007. El nivel del bienestar doméstico fue el factor único que más contribuyó a estas desigualdades; otros factores que contribuyeron de manera significativa para los resultados en salud fueron el de-sempleo y la ubicación rural y, para la utilización de los servicios, tener seguro de salud. CONCLUSIONES. A pesar de las medidas tomadas en Jamaica relacionadas con la equidad en la salud, las desigualdades en los resultados en salud y en la atención sanitaria relacionadas con los ingresos han aumentado y el grupo de población que más necesita los servicios de salud es el que menos los usa. El país requiere programas más innovadores orientados a mejorar la equidad en salud.

Defusing the time bomb: coming to terms with HIV/AIDS in the Caribbean

The potential of the HIV/AIDS equipment to derail adjustment and development trends in the Caribbean has generated concern about the cost of controlling and reducing the hold of the epidemic on the region. This concern leads to an emphasis on three crucial dimensions of the programme which has been set up in response to the threat. These dimensions can be listed as:(1) programme content (2) programme targeting (3) programme funding. This paper focuses on programme funding and deals specifically with the level of funding required, its source, and its allocation(AU)